C-rate defines the ratio between battery power and energy capacity. High C-rate systems are power-oriented, while low C-rate systems are energy-oriented.
DoD impacts both usable energy and battery lifetime. Typical values range from 70% to 90%.
Represents total system losses including inverter, battery, and auxiliary systems. Typical values: 85%–92%.
Battery discharges during peak demand periods to reduce contracted demand charges.
Simplified models assume linear degradation with cycles, but real systems depend on temperature, C-rate, and calendar aging.